Archive for Februari 2012

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Preposition In, On and At


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Preposition In, On and At

We use :
  • at for a PRECISE TIME
  • in for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS
  • on for DAYS and DATES
at
in
on
PRECISE TIME
MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS
DAYS and DATES
at 3 o'clock
in May
on Sunday
at 10.30am
in summer
on Tuesdays
at noon
in the summer
on 6 March
at dinnertime
in 1990
on 25 Dec. 2010
at bedtime
in the 1990s
on Christmas Day
at sunrise
in the next century
on Independence Day
at sunset
in the Ice Age
on my birthday
at the moment
in the past/future
on New Year's Eve
Look at these examples:
  • I have a meeting at 9am.
  • The shop closes at midnight.
  • Jane went home at lunchtime.
  • In England, it often snows in December.
  • Do you think we will go to Jupiter in the future?
  • There should be a lot of progress in the next century.
  • Do you work on Mondays?
  • Her birthday is on 20 November.
  • Where will you be on New Year's Day?
Notice the use of the preposition of time at in the following standard expressions:
Expression
Example
at night
The stars shine at night.
at the weekend
I don't usually work at the weekend.
at Christmas/Easter
I stay with my family at Christmas.
at the same time
We finished the test at the same time.
at present
He's not home at present. Try later.
Notice the use of the prepositions of time in and on in these common expressions:
in
on
in the morning
on Tuesday morning
in the mornings
on Saturday mornings
in the afternoon(s)
on Sunday afternoons
in the evening(s)
on Monday evening
When we say last, next, every, this we do not also use at, in, on.
  • I went to London last June. (not in last June)
  • He's coming back next Tuesday. (not on next Tuesday)
  • I go home every Easter. (not at every Easter)
  • We'll call you this evening. (not in this evening)

Preposition of Place : at, in, on

In general, we use :
  • at for a POINT
  • in for an ENCLOSED SPACE
  • on for a SURFACE
at
in
on
POINT
ENCLOSED SPACE
SURFACE
at the corner
in the garden
on the wall
at the bus stop
in London
on the ceiling
at the door
in France
on the door
at the top of the page
in a box
on the cover
at the end of the road
in my pocket
on the floor
at the entrance
in my wallet
on the carpet
at the crossroads
in a building
on the menu
at the front desk
in a car
on a page
Look at these examples:
  • Jane is waiting for you at the bus stop.
  • The shop is at the end of the street.
  • My plane stopped at Dubai and Hanoi and arrived in Bangkok two hours late.
  • When will you arrive at the office?
  • Do you work in an office?
  • I have a meeting in New York.
  • Do you live in Japan?
  • Jupiter is in the Solar System.
  • The author's name is on the cover of the book.
  • There are no prices on this menu.
  • You are standing on my foot.
  • There was a "no smoking" sign on the wall.
  • I live on the 7th floor at 21 Oxford Street in London.
Notice the use of the prepositions of place at, in and on in these standard expressions:
at
in
on
at home
in a car
on a bus
at work
in a taxi
on a train
at school
in a helicopter
on a plane
at university
in a boat
on a ship
at college
in a lift (elevator)
on a bicycle, on a motorbike
at the top
in the newspaper
on a horse, on an elephant
at the bottom
in the sky
on the radio, on television
at the side
in a row
on the left, on the right
at reception
in Oxford Street
on the way

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VOCABULARY AROUND THE HOUSE


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Rooms in a House
• balcony
• bathroom
• bedroom
• dining room
• garage
• hall
• kitchen
• laundry
• living room

Things in a Bedroom
• alarm
• bed
• bedside table
• clock
• drawers
• dressing table
• lamp
• wardrobe, closet

Things in a Bathroom
• basin, sink
• bath
• mirror
• shower
• taps
• toilet
• towel rack

Things in a Kitchen
• bench
• cupboard
• dishwasher
• microwave
• oven, cooker
• pantry
• refrigerator, fridge
• sink
• stove, cooktop
• taps

Things in a Living Room
• arm chair
• bookcase
• chairs
• coffee table
• fan
• foot rest
• heater
• lounge, sofa, couch
• magazine rack
• recliner
• sound system
• table
• telephone, phone
• television stand
• television, TV

Things in a Dining Room
• chairs
• dining table

Things in a Study
• chair
• computer
• desk
• filing cabinet
• shelf

Things in a Laundry
• clothes maiden, drying rack
• dryer
• iron
• ironing board
• laundry basket
• pegs
• sink
• washing machine
• washing powder

Furniture
• armchair
• bed
• bookcase
• cabinet
• chair
• chest
• coffee table
• cupboard
• desk
• dining table
• drawers
• dressing table
• foot stool, foot rest
• lamp
• lounge, sofa, couch
• office chair
• sideboard, buffet
• stool
• TV stand
• wardrobe

Bills and Utilities
• council charges
• electricity
• gas
• insurance
• rent
• telephone
• water























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PASSIVE VOICE


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  Passive Voice is very popular use, both in everyday conversations and in reading books. In the Indonesian language sentence is known as a verb beginning with di-(written, given, scolded, etc.). In the active sentence we may say so:

The teacher warned Nitha for being late. -> Teachers warned Nitha for being late.

But if we want to express this sentence in the passive voice, we will say:

Nitha was warned by the teacher for being late. -> Nitha warned by the teacher for being late.


The rules for forming the passive voice,

(1) The sentence should have Object (Transitive Verb).

(2) Object in the active sentence becomes the subject in passive sentences.

(3) said his work should form the III (Past Participle) preceded by a to be (am, is, are, was, were the resource persons, been). And

(4) The structure of the sentence by tenses.

A. Simple Past Tense
Struktur —> Subject + was/were + Past Participle

Example :
(A) Fire destroyed the house. —> (P) The house was destroyed by fire.

B. Simple Present Tense
Stuktur —> Subject + am/is/are + Past Participle

Example :
(A) People all over the world speak English. —> (P) English is spoken all over the world.

C. Present Perfect Tense
Struktur —> Subject + have/has been + Past Participle

Example :
(A) The students have copied the lesson. —> (P) The lesson has been copied by the students.

D. Present Continuous Tense
Struktur —> Subject + am/is/are + being + Past Participle

Example :
(A) She is typing the letter. —> (P) The letter is being typed.

E. Simple Future Tense
Struktur —> Subject + shall/will be + Past Participle

Example :
(A) They will sign the contract next week. —> (P) The contract will be signed next week.

F. Passive Voice with Auxiliaries
Struktur —> Subject + aux + be + Past Participle

Example :
(A) He must finish the work today. —> (P) The work must be finished today.

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Asking if Someone Remembers or Not


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  1.  Formal expressions:
            - I wonder if you remember.....
            - You remember...., don’t you?
            - You haven’t forgotten...., have you?
            - Don’t you remember.....?
            - Do you happen to remember it now?
  •   Ways to respond:
          - Let me think, yes, I remember.
          - I remember especially the scenery.
          - I’ll never forget that
          - I’ll always remember.
          - I can remember it clearly.

     2.   Informal expressions:
           - Remember the old house we used to live in?
           - Remember that?
           - I’m sorry I don’t remember
  •  Ways to respond:
           - Hold on. Yes, got it!
           - I know.....
           - It’s coming back to me now.
  •  Respond if you forget:
           - Sorry, I’ve completely forgotten.
           - I’m afraid I forget.
           - I really can’t remember.
           - I’m afraid I have no memory of him
           - Emmm, let me think. No, it’s gone.
           - Sorry, it slipped off my mind.

Example :
       It was Sunday morning, Tia got dressed and had breakfast quickly. She was ready to leave for school. Her mother was a little puzzled.
Mother : Hey...hey.... are you going to school?
Tia        : Yes, Mom. I overslept. I’m in a hurry
Mother  : You remember Sunday, don’t you?
Tia         : Oh, my goodness. I thought it’s a school day !

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OFFERING


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Definition of Offering :

1. The act of making an offer.
2. Something, such as stock, that is offered.
3. A presentation made to a deity as an act of religious worship or sacrifice; an oblation.
4. A contribution or gift, especially one made at a religious service.


Offering to older people:
  • Would you like a cup of coffee, Mr. Green?
  • Should I get you a bottle of water?
  • Could I offer you a glass of lemonade, Mrs. Lina?
  • Would you care for some salad ?
Offering to friends:
  • Want some?
  • Have some.
  • Chocolate?
  • Glass of lemonade?
  • Grab some for yourself.
  • Would you like to have a pancake?
  • Why don’t you have some lemonade?
  • What can I get for you?
  • What will you have?

Accepting an offer:
  • Thank you
  • Yes, please
  • I’d like it very much
  • Thank you, I would
  • That would be very nice

Declining an offer:
  • No, thanks.
  • No, I really won’t. Thank you.
  • Not for me, thanks.
  • No, thanks. I’m not hungry.

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Simple Future


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Simple Future has two different forms in English: " will " and "be going to". Although the two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often express two very different meanings. These different meanings might seem too abstract at first, but with time and practice, the differences will become clear. Both "will" and "be going to" refer to a specific time in the future.


FORM Will  ==>   [will + verb]
Examples:
  • You will help him later.
  • Will you help him later?
  • You will not help him later.
FORM Be Going To ==> [am/is/are + going to + verb]
Examples:
  • You are going to meet Jane tonight.
  • Are you going to meet Jane tonight?
  • You are not going to meet Jane tonight. 
Complete List of Simple Future Forms
USE 1 "Will" to Express a Voluntary Action
     "Will" often suggests that a speaker will do something voluntarily. A voluntary action is one the speaker offers to do for someone else. Often, we use "will" to respond to someone Else's complaint or request for help. We also use "will" when we request that someone help us or volunteer to do something for us. Similarly, we use "will not" or "won't" when we refuse to voluntarily do something.
Examples:
  • I will send you the information when I get it.
  • I will translate the email, so Mr. Smith can read it.
  • Will you help me move this heavy table?
  • Will you make dinner?
  • I will not do your homework for you.
  • I won't do all the housework myself!
  • Soraya : I'm really hungry.
    Cinthya : I'll make some sandwiches.
  • Mizta : I'm so tired. I'm about to fall asleep.
    Laurent : I'll get you some coffee.
  • Keisha : The phone is ringing.
    Ridho: I'll get it.
USE 2 "Will" to Express a Promise
  "Will" is usually used in promises.
Examples:
  • I will call you when I arrive.
  • If I am elected President of the United States, I will make sure everyone has access to inexpensive health insurance.
  • I promise I will not tell him about the surprise party.
  • Don't worry, I'll be careful.
  • I won't tell anyone your secret.
USE 3 "Be going to" to Express a Plan
     "Be going to" expresses that something is a plan. It expresses the idea that a person intends to do something in the future. It does not matter whether the plan is realistic or not.
Examples:
  • He is going to spend his vacation in Hawaii.
  • She is not going to spend her vacation in Hawaii.
  • A: When are we going to meet each other tonight?
    B: We are going to meet at 6 PM.
  • I'm going to be an actor when I grow up.
  • Michelle is going to begin medical school next year.
  • They are going to drive all the way to Alaska.
  • Who are you going to invite to the party?
  • A: Who is going to make John's birthday cake?
    B: Sue is going to make John's birthday cake.
USE 4 "Will" or "Be Going to" to Express a Prediction
      Both "will" and "be going to" can express the idea of a general prediction about the future. Predictions are guesses about what might happen in the future. In "prediction" sentences, the subject usually has little control over the future and therefore USES 1-3 do not apply. In the following examples, there is no difference in meaning.
Examples:
  • The year 2222 will be a very interesting year.
  • The year 2222 is going to be a very interesting year.
  • John Smith will be the next President.
  • John Smith is going to be the next President.
  • The movie "Zenith" will win several Academy Awards.
  • The movie "Zenith" is going to win several Academy Awards.
Important :
   In the Simple Future, it is not always clear which USE the speaker has in mind. Often, there is more than one way to interpret a sentence's meaning.
No Future in Time Clauses
Like all future forms, the Simple Future cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Simple Future, Simple Present is used.
Examples:
  • When you will arrive tonight, we will go out for dinner. Not Correct
  • When you arrive tonight, we will go out for dinner. Correct
ADVERB PLACEMENT
The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.
Examples:
  • You will never help him.
  • Will you ever help him?
  • You are never going to meet Jane.
  • Are you ever going to meet Jane?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE
Examples:
  • John will finish the work by 5:00 PM. Active
  • The work will be finished by 5:00 PM. Passive
  • Sally is going to make a beautiful dinner tonight. Active
  • A beautiful dinner is going to be made by Sally tonight. Passive

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Noun Phrase


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noun is a word that names a person, animal, place, thing, idea, or concept, or anything considered as noun 

The Noun examples
•       Persons: girl, boy, instructor, student, Mr. Smith, Peter, president
•       Animals: dog, cat, shark, hamster, fish, bear, flea
•        Places: gym, store, school, Lake Minnetonka, Minnesota, village, Europe
•       Things: computer, pen, notebook, mailbox, bush, tree, cornflakes
•       Ideas: liberty, panic, attention, knowledge, compassion, worship
•       The Functions of Nouns in Sentences
•                       1.Subject of the sentence
               2.Predicate Noun (also Predicate Nominative or Subjective Complement)
•                       3. Appositive (noun in apposition)
•                       4. Direct object of a verb
•                       5. Indirect object of a verb
•                       6. Object of the preposition
•                       7. Object Complement (Objective Complement)

Gerunds can also be classified as noun
• For example:
•       I like swimming
•       The word ‘swimming’  is a gerund
•     
PHRASES
•       A  phrase is a group of related words that lacks both a subject and a predicate. Because it lacks a subject and a predicate it cannot act as a sentence.
•       A noun phrase consists of a pronoun or noun with any associated modifiers, including adjectives, adjective phrases, and other nouns in the possessive case.
•       Like a noun, a noun phrase can act as a subject, as the object of a verb or verbal, as a subject or object complement, or as the object of a preposition, as in the following ...
•       Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.

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FINITIVE VERBS


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A finite verb is a verb that is inflected for person and for tenses according to the ruler and categories of languages in which it occurs.
· Finite verb can form “Indenpendent Clause” which constand by their own as complete sentences
· An Independent clause is a complete sentences it contain the main subject and verb of asentences
· In English only verb in contain mob the finite.These includes.

→ Indicate mood : expressing state of appairs in indicative mood finite verb is must used verb.
Example : Elis is going to shop

→ Imperative mood , giving a command
example : Help me please !!!
Don't do that !!!


Verb – Finite / Non Finite
Finite Verb
A finite verb (sometimes called main verbs) is a verb that has a subject, this means that it can be the main verb in a sentence. It shows tense (past / present etc) or number (singular / plural)
For example :
I lived in Germany. (I is the subject-lived describes what the subject did-lived is a finite verb).

Non-Finite Verb
A non-finite verb has no subject, tense or number. The only non-finite verb forms are the infinite (indicated by to), the gerund or the participle.
For example :
I lived in Germany to improve my German.(To improve is in the infinite form-improve is non-finite).

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News Item


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 News Item:  is a factual text which informs the readers about events of the day which are considered newsworthy or important.
•          Social function of news item is: to inform readers, listeners or viewers about events of the day which are considered newsworthy or important
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Generic structure:
•          Newsworthy Event(s):  recounts the events in summary form
•          Background Event(s):  elaborate what happened, to WHOM, in WHAT circumstances.
•          Sources:  comments by participants in, witnesses to, and expert on the event.
•          Significant Grammar Features:
•          Short, telegraphic information about story captured in headline
•          Generally using Simple Past Tense
•          Use of Material Processes to retell the event
•          Using Action Verbs, e.g.: were, run, go, kill, etc.
•          Using Saying Verbs, e.g.: say, tell
•          Focus on Circumstances
•          Use of projecting Verbal Processes in Sources stages
•          There are some rules that can help to make newspaper headlines more comprehensible.
•          The passive voice is used without the appropriate form of “be”. 
 Example:  Town ‘Contaminated’
Complete Sentence:  Town is contaminated.
•          It is unusual to find complex forms, generally the simple present form is used
Example:  Fire Destroys over 2,511 acres of Forest in 2003-2004
Complete Sentence:  Fire has destroyed over 2,511 acres of forest in 2003-2004.
»        The present progressive tense is used, usually to describe something that is changing or developing, but the auxiliary verb is usually left out.
 Example:  World Heading for Energy Crisis
Complete Sentence:  The world is heading for an energy crisis.
»        To refer to the future, headlines often use the infinitive.
•          Example:   Queen to Visit Samoa.
•          Complete Sentence:  The Queen is going to visit Samoa.
»        Headlines are not always complete sentences.
Example:  More earthquakes in Japan.
Complete Sentence:  More earthquakes happened in Japan

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INTRODUCTORY IT


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When the subjective is an infinitive phrase
We begin a sentence with it when the real subject is an infinitive phrase. So instead of saying, ‘To accept your advice is difficult’, we say, ‘It is difficult to accept your advice’.
Structure: It + verb + subject complement + infinitive phrase (real subject)
It is easy to learn English. (= To learn English is easy.)
It is easy to find fault with others. (= To find fault with others is easy.)
It is difficult to know his motive. (= To know his motive is difficult.)
It is difficult to find a good job during these troubled times.
It is dangerous to play with fire.
It could be dangerous to drive so fast.

Note that when we wish to emphasize the infinitive phrase, it may be put at the beginning, especially when it is short.
To err is human. (OR It is human to err.)
To become a well known writer was his life-long ambition. (OR It was his lifelong ambition to become a well known writer.)
To invest all your money in shares is foolish. (OR It is foolish to invest all your money in shares.)

When the subject is a gerund phrase
When the real subject is a phrase that includes a gerund, it is used as a provisional subject to begin the sentence. So instead of saying ‘Your trying to fool us is no good’, we say, ‘It is no good your trying to fool us.’
It won’t be any good complaining to the manager. (Complaining to the manager won’t be any good.)
It is silly throwing away this opportunity. (Throwing away this opportunity is silly.)
Will it be any good my talking to him about it? (Will my talking to him about it be any good?)
It is no fun having so many children to look after. (Having so many children to look after is no fun.)
Note that it is possible to change the gerund into an infinitive.
It won’t be any good for me to complain to the manager.
It is silly (for you) to throw away this opportunity.
Will it be any good for me to talk to him about it?
Many of these sentences can also be re-written as exclamatory sentences.
How silly of you to throw away this opportunity!

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DESCRIPTIVE TEXT


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Descriptive text is a kind of text that has functions to describe a particular thing, place, or person.

The generic structure of descriptive text :

(a) Identification / ClassificationFunction : To mention or to identificate the particular thing, place, or persons hat will be describe in the text.

(b) Description
Function : To describe or mention some characteristic of particular thing, place, or person.

The language features of descriptive text :

v Focus on specific participants

v Use of attributive and identifying processes

v Frequent use of epithets and classifier in nominal groups

v Use of simple present tense.

Example of Descriptive Text:

Identification :My Pets

We have three family pets: a dog, a cat, and a tortoise.

Descriptions :
The dog’s name is Benjamin. He is big golden Labrador. He is beautiful. He has big brown eyes and a long tail. He is very friendly dog, but he is sometimes a little stupid. Dogs are expensive to keep but they are fun to play with.

Our cat is named Martha. She is quite young, but she is not a kitten. She is very pretty. She has black and white fur and green eyes. She’s smart, too and very clean.

The tortoise’s name is Rocky. He has short, fat legs, a long neck, and a very hard shell. He is also very old and slow. He’s ugly and dirty, but I like him.

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Direct speech and Indirect speech


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Direct speech : refers to reproducing another persons excact word. We use quotation marks (" ")
Example of Direct Speech :
1. Jani said, “I’m very busy .”
2. They said, “We have bought a picture.”
3. He said, “I am learning my lesson.”
4. Lisa says, “I got the first prize.”
5. You said, “I will come to help him.”
6. Oskar will say, “I will do my best.”
Indirect speech : refers to reproducing the idea of another persons
word.
There are 3 kinds of indirect speech :
1. Imperrative (command/request)
2. interrogative (question)
3. Declarative (statement)

Example :
1. Imperrative (command / request)
Direct : Mrs. Rika said to Dina, "Don't wory about it."
Indirect : Mrs. Rika told Dina not to wory about it.

2. Interrogative (question)
Direct : Risa asked to Nico, "Are you a journalist?"
Indirect : Risa asked if / whether He was journalist.

3. Declarative (statement)
Direct : Mr. Dion said, "I worked hard yesterday."
Indirect : Mr. Dion said that he worked hard the day before.

In comand sentences, direct speech can changed to indirect speech with change "Said" to be "Ordered", "Told", and "Forbade".

Example :
1. Direct : Hamid said, "Open the door!"
Indirect : Hamid ordered to open the door.

2. Direct : Hamid said, "Dul, come here!"
Indirect : Hamid told Dul to come there.

3. Direct : Hamid said to Andi, "Do not disturb me!"
Indirect : Hamid forbade Andi to disturb him.

Time change

Expressions of time if reported on a different day
This (evening)
›
That (evening)
Today
›
Yesterday
These (days)
›
Those (days)
Now
›
Then
(a week) ago
›
(a week) before
Last weekend
›
The weekend before last / the previous weekend
Here
›
There
Next (week)
›
The following (week)
Tomorrow
›
The next/following day

Tense change

Direct speech
Indirect speech
Present simple
She said, "It's cold."
›
Past simple
She said it was cold.
Present continuous
She said, "I'm teaching English online."
›
Past continuous
She said she was teaching English online.
Present perfect simple
She said, "I've been on the web since 1999."
›
Past perfect simple
She said she had been on the web since 1999.
Present perfect continuous
She said, "I've been teaching English for seven years."
›
Past perfect continuous
She said she had been teaching English for seven years.
Past simple
She said, "I taught online yesterday."
›
Past perfect
She said she had taught online yesterday.
Past continuous
She said, "I was teaching earlier."
›
Past perfect continuous
She said she had been teaching earlier.
Past perfect
She said, "The lesson had already started when he arrived."
›
Past perfect
She said the lesson had already started when he arrived.
Past perfect continuous
She said, "I'd already been teaching for five minutes."
›
Past perfect continuous
She said she'd already been teaching for five minutes.

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Modals in the past form


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Modals in the past form
1. Could + Verb base
• To offer suggestions or possibilities
Example:
Jason : Oh, no! I left my shorts.
Nate : Don’t worry, Jason. You could borrow my shorts.

Mitchie : I’m having trouble with English.
Demi : Why don’t you ask Tess? Perhaps she could help you.
• To indicate that the ability existed in the past but doesn’t exist now.
Example:
Mitchie : Ras, can you climb the coconut tree?
Shane : Well… I could climb coconut tree when I was so young. But I think I’m too heavy to climb it.

Selena : Grandpa, what could you do when you were younger?
Grandpa : When I was younger, I could swim across the big river very well and faster.
• To express polite requests
Example:
* Could I borrow your pencil (please)?
* Could you lend me your jacket now?
* Could you please close the door?
* Could you pass the salt?


2. Would + Verb base
• For an action that was repeated regularly in the past
Example:
* When I was a child, I would visit my grandparents every weekend.
* On Sundays, when I was a child, we would all get up early and go fishing.
• Insert rather into the pattern and use this expression to express preferences
Example:
Troy : What would you rather do in the weekend, go to the party or stay home?
Ryan : I would rather go to the party than stay home.

Gabriella : Which country would you rather visit?
Sharpay : I would rather visit Italia than Somalia.
• To express polite requests
Example:
Nick : Would you mind cycling with me, Selena?
Selena : No, not at all. It would be nice.

Joey : Would you please pass the helmet, Mary?
Mary : No problem.


3. Should + Verb base
• To give definite advice (advisability)
Example:
Mom : Putri, you should study tonight. You will have English test tomorrow, won’t you?
Mitchie : Joe : You should paint your door, Kevin. It looks terrible.
Kevin : Yes, I know I should.
• To express the subject’s obligation or duty:
Example:
* You should practice for more than an hour. (to musical friend)
* They shouldn’t allow parking here; the street is too narrow.
* Application should be sent before March 25th.
4. Might + Verb base
• To tell possibilities
Example:
Nick : Where is Joe?
Kevin : He might be in the studio with Stella.
• To express polite requests
Example:
Demi : Might I borrow your coat?
Miley : I’m afraid not. It has been brought by Hannah for weeks and I don’t know when he’ll return it.

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